Mary Abigail Moreno

Mid Quarter Orals: 10 Key Terms

English 105.08

Professor Gill-Mayberry

17 February 2015

“The best writing is re-writing”: 3rd Draft, 2 Tutorials, 0 Teacher Conference

 

Mid Quarter Orals

 

          (1) The title of the book Everything’s An Argument is more than just a snappy phrase because it represents the authors’ convictions. 

 

All language, whether written or spoken, visual or textual, is motivated. For example, a poster of a weak person holding a cigarette has the

 

motive of convincing individuals to quit smoking by presenting its negative health effects.  

 

          (2) Besides being motivated, language is also a human activity because all humans exist in a complex world of goals and purposes.

 

Moreover, language controls people because it is a form of symbolic action, which means it enables things to be done in the world and it acts

 

on people and situations. A weaker version of language as a symbolic action claims language has effects in the world or that people use

 

language in everyday life. On the other hand, a stronger version of language as a symbolic action claims, holding with Bourdieu and Burke,

 

that all language is a form of argument. People use language to create identification between themselves and their audience. Production of an

 

analysis of language in this model requires not just reason but also the sensory faculties and an awareness of the rhetor’s and the audience’s

 

history and experiences. The Bourdieuian and Burkeian definition of language makes apparently simple activities – saying “hello” to

 

another human, chatting with friends, reading the newspaper – into scenes of argument. For example, a person with the idea of language

 

merely as a tool in conversation demonstrates the weaker version of language as a symbolic action while developing rhetors in this class,

 

who view language as a form of argument, demonstrates the stronger version of language as a symbolic action.

 

          (3) Aristotle, a famous Greek philosopher, created a classification of the purposes of arguments, based on the issues of time – the past,

 

present, or future. Arguments based on the issues of time include forensic arguments, deliberative arguments, and arguments about

 

contemporary values. Moreover, Aristotle also identifies three key ways writers can appeal to their audiences in arguments. First, Pathos are

 

emotional appeals or appeals to the heart. An example would be presenting the AIDS epidemic in Africa by utilizing images depicting

 

suffering people to create sympathy. Second, Ethos are ethical appeals or appeals based on the writer’s authority and credibility. An example

 

would be establishing a writer’s authority by demonstrating adequate knowledge on a topic. Lastly, Logos are logical appeals or appeals to

 

reason. An example would be using statistics or facts to support an argument.

 

          (4) Arguments aim to discover some version of truth, using evidence and reasons. These arguments lead audiences towards

 

conviction, an agreement that a claim is true or reasonable, or that a course of action is desirable. An example would be an argument

 

claiming human activities as the primary cause of ocean pollution. This argument intends to determine whether or not the claim, asserting

 

human activities as a cause of ocean pollution, is true.

 

          (5) In contrast to arguments, the aim of persuasion is to change a point of view or to move others from conviction to action. In other

 

words, writers or speakers argue to discover some truth; they persuade when they think they already know the truth that everybody else

 

needs. Persuasion in a form of writing is designed to aggressively change opinions through the use of both reason and other appropriate

 

techniques. An example of persuasion would be a propaganda, which persuades at all costs.

 

          (6) Moreover, “Not all language use aims to win”. Invitational arguments aim to invite others to enter a space of mutual regard and

 

exploration. An example would be an argument addressing serious problems in society, such as the causes of and possible solutions to a

 

country’s economic crisis.

 

          (7) In addition, Rogerian arguments, named after the psychotherapist Carl Rogers, is based on finding common ground and

 

approaching audiences in nonthreatening ways. Rogerian argument writers seek to understand the perspectives of those with whom they

 

disagree. Most arguments today follow the principles of Rogerian Argument, consciously or not. For example, arguments presented by

 

enthusiasts of gun control acknowledging the idea of the laws violating the Second Amendment demonstrates the Rogerian argument by

 

considering the primary claim made by most of their opponents.

 

          (8) Furthermore, Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher, searched for methods that accurately described the way people make

 

convincing and reasonable arguments. First, in the Toulmin model, arguments begin with claims, which are debatable and controversial

 

statements or assertions you hope to prove.  Second, these claims must be supported by evidences and good reasons. Third, the claims and

 

reasons must be persuasively and logically connected, called the warrant. Fourth, there must be backing, where the evidences are offered.

 

Fifth, qualifiers, which are words and phrases that place limits on claims, should be utilized. Lastly, a writer must understand and react to the

 

conditions of rebuttal, which are potential objections to an argument. An example following the Toulmin model would be an argument

 

stating, “The Electoral College gives small states undue influence. So, it should be abolished. Since no states should have undue influence

 

on presidential elections.” (156), providing adequate evidences supporting the argument, and addressing the conditions of rebuttal.

 

          (9) The Stasis Theory is the categorization system of arguments based on the kinds of issues they address. The categories of

 

arguments according to the stasis theory are arguments of facts, definition, evaluation, and proposal arguments. Arguments of fact focuses

 

on the question “Did something happen?”, arguments of definition focus on the question “What is the nature of the thing?”, arguments of

 

evaluation focus on the question “What is the quality of the thing?”, and proposal arguments focus on the question “What actions should be

 

taken?”. For example, the argument claiming abortion as murder demonstrates one of the categories, determined by the Stasis Theory, which

 

is the argument of definition.

 

          (10) The Aristotelian Classical Argumentative Structure comprises of six key parts. First, the introduction includes the claim, hook,

 

bridge, and divided stasis. Claims are debatable and controversial statements or assertions you hope to prove. Second, the narration

 

contains qualifiers, which limits the claims and provides background information to the audience. Third, the confirmation displays backing,

 

which are evidences supporting a warrant. Fourth, the concession establishes the rebuttal, which recognizes opposing viewpoints to the

 

writer’s claims. Fifth, the refutation addresses the opponents’ claims. Lastly, the summation provides a strong conclusion, by incorporating

 

evidences, claims, and warrants, and shows the readers that the proposed solution is the best at meeting the circumstances. An example

 

illustrating the six key issues in developing an argument leading to the Aristotelian classical argument structure is the Lindsey model for

 

Ebonics.